Politics: Book 5

In Book V of Politics, Aristotle considers the causes of revolution in a state, how a state may be preserved and how it is destroyed. He mentions how democracy is based on the notion that those who are equally free should be absolutely equal while oligarchy is based on the idea that those who are unequal in one respect, namely property, must be absolutely unequal. Both forms of government are partially correct but neither is entirely so. When their share in government is not at par with the conceptions they happen to have, conflict is inevitable. Inequality is thus an important cause of revolution. Aristotle also distinguishes between those who are virtuous or genuinely worthy and those who possess rank in society due to wealth and ancestry.

Two kinds of equality in a regime must be observed - numerical or equality in numbers, and proportional or equality of ratios. In the abstract, people agree that justice is proportion but when applied to the state, numerical equality is considered. There are those who think that if they are equal in some respect, they should be equal in all respects while there are others who think that if they are unequal in some respect, they must be unequal in all respects. Hence, both democrats and oligarchs exist. But states ordered by one particular principle never last and the best regime is one wherein both types of equality are used. Democracy tends to be less liable to revolution as compared to oligarchy because democracies may only have a conflict between rich and poor, while oligarchies also result in conflicts amongst the those in power. According to Aristotle, a regime that is moderate, is one that will endure.

The chief reason behind feelings that lead to revolution is a desire for equality, when men think they are equal to others who have more, or for inequality, when they think they are superior to those around them and deserve more. However, the desire for gain and honour or the fear of dishonour and loss may also be responsible for revolution. Various other causes of revolution are given by Aristotle such as the insolence of magistrates, disproportionate increase in some part of a state and differences in race. Aristotle says that democracies undergo revolution on account of the ‘wanton behaviour’ of the popular leaders. Leaders such as this rile up owners of property to join against democracy and in the process, turn the poor against the rich in order to maintain themselves in power. He mentions the overthrown democracies of Cos and Heraclea as examples. In earlier times, democracy was more likely to turn into tyranny because of demagogues or manipulative leaders who were also generals of great power, such as the tyranny that arose at Miletus. In oligarchies, the chief cause of revolution is when the multitude is unjustly oppressed and any person becomes worthy of leadership, as in the case of Lygdamis at Naxos. Revolution may also occur when members of the wealthy feel excluded from a rightful share in government.

Inspite of the flawed nature of every regime and the risks involved in a particular regime being overthrown, Aristotle does discuss how a state may be best preserved. Firstly, it is important to know the reasons behind a revolution and taking precautionary measures to avoid such circumstances. Secondly, laws must be in place and trivial matters should not be disregarded in an existing regime. The laws of government should be arranged in such a manner that it is impossible to take advantage of positions of power and the masses do not mind being kept away from ruling. Aristotle mentions three qualifications for persons holding offices in a government - “(1) first of all, loyalty to the established constitution; (2) the greatest administrative capacity; (3) virtue and justice of the kind proper to each form of government; for, if what is just is not the same in all governments, the quality of justice must also differ." Although it is difficult to find all these qualities in men, the choice must be made considering which quality is common and which is rare. A regime is long lasting when the government in power, whether it is an oligarchy or a democracy is not hostile to the other group.

Aristotle believes that education, adapted to the form of government, plays a vital role in the permanence of a constitution and the well-being of the state. This does not mean that people living in an oligarchy should be made to believe that democracy is the enemy of the state or that the wealthy must regard the less fortunate with disdain. Instead, to be educated in ‘the spirit of the constitution’ is to understand the values of moderate democracy and moderate oligarchy such that revolution is avoided and the regime is stable.

In the rest of Book V, the causes of monarchy and its two forms, aristocracy and tyranny are discussed in detail. In the case of aristocracy, an individual is appointed king because he possesses superior virtue as compared to all other citizens and he rules by merit for the welfare of the state. For example, Codrus prevented the state from being enslaved in war. A tyrant, on the other hand, has no regard for the good of his people and rules with selfish intent such as the Ionian tyrants who achieved tyranny by holding great offices. Therefore, the rule of the best man over others, is far better than the rule of a master over a regime in which all are slaves. Stating reasons for the destruction of these regimes, Aristotle mentions hatred, fear and contempt as having brought about conspiracies in monarchies as well as in other forms of government. For instance, at Mytilene, Megacles and his friends attacked and slew the Penthilidae out of fear, as they were going about striking people with clubs. Aristotle concludes by analysing and refuting certain arguments made by Plato in The Republic regarding the causes of change in government.