Function of Rhetoric in Bruni’s ‘Funeral Oration’ and ‘Panegyric’

The classical tradition of Rhetoric was seen being incorporated into the Humanist political theory around the late fourteenth and fifteenth century. This humanist rhetoric was heavily influenced by rhetorical exercises of Cicero and Quintilian; but with more importance given to Cicero. There was an emphasis made on the art of governance through the study of these classical authors. The ‘auctores’ played an important role in causing this classical strain by extensive study of classical works on rhetoric. This was not merely about ‘ars’ but using rhetoric to defend liberality, equality and justice. The individual was no longer the central focus any more but the city state which was required to embody the individual virtues as a whole. Bruni, at this point, was responsible for creating a certain kind of civic humanism discourse. Both his ‘Funeral Oration for Nanni Strozzi’ and ‘Panegyric to the City of Florence’ are examples of the formation of civic humanism as well as a rhetorical exercise. Bruni, much like his teacher Salutatti, elaborated on the need for a republican form of government and complete political independence from tyrants; specifically speaking against the despotism of Milan under the Visconti family.

His ‘Funeral Oration for Nanni Strozzi’ is a eulogy not just to Strozzi himself but to the city of Florence as a whole. Much like Pericles’ Funeral Oration from Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War; Bruni too stresses on the liberality and equality of the Florentine state which is a result of the exemplary ruling of Strozzi. He begins with the praise of his own motherland and considers it the most suitable way to pay tribute to the deceased ruler. The city of Florence is an ideal city; a model that all other cities should aspire to become. No other city in Italy can be compared to this city state; it has the best of both the Tuscan and the Roman forefathers. The Tuscans were renowned for their military prowess as well as wealth and the Roman Emperors were replete with virtue, glory, wisdom and magnanimity. Needless to say, the city of Florence remains incomparable in every which way. This funeral oration was delivered at the time when there was a centralization of power by the wealthy Medicis. To mourn the death of a great ruler like Nanni Strozzi would be belittling his accomplishments; hence Bruni enumerates his various achievements through the idealization of the city of Florence. The ideal form of government under Strozzi made certain that liberality and equality were practiced and meritorious men would always find ample opportunities to flourish. Bruni praises this ‘popular government’ which is free from the fear of tyrants (unlike the neighbouring city states) and the citizens are governed by equal laws. The election of the rulers is dependent on human grace and not on wealth. Through the use of rhetoric, Bruni constantly evokes the humanist values. The primary focus is of humans and human values. The common people are the most important and he criticizes monarchic and oligarchic forms of government that only focused on the ruler. He dismisses all false praises of monarchy and asserts the ‘popular government’ as the only legitimate form of governance in any city state. The success of this can be measured through the citizens and their accomplishments. The adequate nurturing of their talents and skills ensured not only military success but also an impressive cultural and literary output. The emergence and expansion of an industrious and commercial class that results in the multiplication of wealth in the city state is also praised. The decaying Greek Literature in Italy was brought back to its full glory by the city of Florence. Bruni ends his funeral oration by mentioning that the city is a reflection of its ruler and Strozzi will remain unmatched in everyway just like the Florentines.

This significant shift from praising monarchy to a more liberal and democratic form of government is also seen in ‘Panegyric to the City of Florence’. The panegyrics became a popular rhetorical device that eschewed the despotic rule of the signori and implemented excessive praise for the ‘popular government’. There can be no room for negative criticism in a panegyric. Bruni’s use of rhetoric in his panegyric is not only to idealize and praise the city of Florence but also instill civic pride and virtue amongst the citizens. Unlike his ‘Funeral Oration’ where the focus was on Strozzi, here he asserts the greatness of city itself. He is humbled by the opportunity to describe a city as great as Florence. The similar ideas of splendor, wealth and power are evoked as in the funeral oration but here Bruni incorporates rhetorical excesses to highlight it further. He repeatedly iterates the notion of a ‘popular government’ beginning with the description of the city and its unmatched architecture. He, then, directly takes up the Ciceronian legacy to start from the beginning and describe the Florentine citizens. The connection between the city and its people is established again and again in both the texts. Here, not only does he praise his Roman founders but also demolishes the rule of tyrants like Caesar, Tiberius and the likes who destroyed the Roman empire through their tyrannical rule. As a result, need for Republicanism rose where virtues of justice, equality and liberality could be pursued. The evils of Caligula and Caesar were banished by adopting the Republican way. The greatness of an individual is brought about only in an environment that promotes equality and the great minds of Florentine flourished. Faith was bestowed on both the weak and strong Florentine classes. The Florentines imitated the virtue of their great Roman and Tuscan forefathers and hence the city continued to remain unmatched in every other way.

The magnanimity of the city of Florence is highlighted through its foreign policies. Here is a city, unlike any other city, that gives refuge to outsiders in search for protection and shelter. Of course, there is a pragmatic motive underlying such a generosity but Bruni only mentions the generosity and charitable spirit of the Florentine state. There are a few distinctive features in this panegyric; firstly, the use of a military rhetoric aimed against the Milanese and secondly, the city is not simply constituted of common citizens but also the rising commercial as well as apolitically powerful class. Florence undertakes the responsibility to protect the weaker neighboring states and Italy as a whole. He asks whether any other city displays such magnanimity of spirit. He dismisses accumulation of private wealth; the city can only function peacefully if there is no inequality. He credits the success of Florence to the Divine by stating that whenever there had been any threat of attack, the city was saved due to this Divine intervention. This is a reference made to the sudden death of Giangaleazzo Visconti (the duke of Lombardy) who was planning to attack Florence. Bruni also points out the establishment of a penal code of law which ensures that all citizens are subjected to the same laws and treatment. The magistrates, who are given the responsibility to ensure the law is upheld, are also subjected to various provisions that keep their power in check. Indeed, the city of Florence has learnt from the history of the tyrants and intends not to repeat the same mistake. There is no concentration of power in a singular ruler. The sovereignty of the city state is upheld by the Nine Priors and the Twelve Good Men who ensure that the whole citizen body adheres to the common law.

There is obviously a discrepancy in this notion of equality. Both the panegyric and the funeral speech omit the extension of this equality amongst the women and slaves. In fact, they do not fit into the two works at all. The rhetorical excesses do evoke the notion of civic humanism but in a partial and incomplete way. The main idea is to articulate the idea of ‘civic membership’ and prescribe the role to the community. There is on one hand, the need for self formation by adopting the prescribed virtues and on the other hand, this is channeled towards the city. The goal of the self formation is for active participation in the public domain. Through the study of the classical rhetoric texts, virtue is inculcated in the individuals and society. The Augustinian notion of the sinful society is removed where there is no room for self betterment and a more positive assertion of self and the government is placed. Bruni does not talk about this directly but he does emphasize the notion of civic humanism by stating that the success of a city state lies in the hands of its citizens. The Republican form of government is the ideal and only way to rule and this is exemplified through the highly idealized city of Florence. He might depreciate his own powers of oration but does not hesitate to eloquently describe the magnificent Florentine city.
Amrita Kar
Pg-1
Roll no. 34